Domitian ruled the Roman Empire from AD 81 to 96. Unlike his predecessors, he didn’t wait for the Senate to deify him after death—he demanded divine honors while still alive. In his reign, we find the clearest clash yet between the Roman emperor’s claim to absolute authority and the growing Christian conviction that Jesus alone is Lord.
We will examine how Domitian reshaped imperial religion, how Jews and Christians were affected, and how John’s Gospel and Revelation responded. Then we’ll look at Nerva, his successor, who briefly reversed these policies and allowed the apostle John to return from exile.
Imperial Title: “Lord and God” — Claimed by Domitian, Confessed by Thomas
Multiple Roman sources record that Domitian required subjects to refer to him with divine titles.
Suetonius (c. AD 69–122), a Roman biographer, writes:
“He even dictated a circular letter in the name of his procurators, beginning: ‘Our Lord and God commands that this be done.’”
— Suetonius, Life of Domitian 13.2
Cassius Dio (c. AD 155–235), a Roman senator and historian, adds:
“Domitian was not only bold enough to boast of his divinity openly, but compelled everyone to address him as Lord and God.”
— Cassius Dio, Roman History 67.4
At the same time, the Gospel of John (written c. AD 90–95, near the end of Domitian’s reign) records the only place in the New Testament where someone addresses Jesus with both titles:
“Thomas answered and said to Him, ‘My Lord and my God!’”
— John 20:28
The Greek, ho Kyrios mou kai ho Theos mou, mirrors the very language demanded of Domitian in the Greek-speaking east. In a world where Caesar was called “Lord and God” by force, John records a disciple saying it freely of Jesus.
Emperor Worship in Asia Minor
Domitian’s divine status was especially prominent in Asia Minor, the region addressed by Revelation (written c. AD 95).
- Ephesus: A temple was constructed during Domitian’s reign and dedicated to him. Archaeology has recovered fragments of a colossal statue and inscriptions honoring him.
- Pergamum: Already home to the first imperial cult temple in Asia (to Augustus and Roma, 29 BC), it continued to be a center of emperor worship under Domitian. Revelation 2:13 calls it “where Satan’s throne is.”
- Smyrna and Sardis: Inscriptions name Domitian with divine epithets like Sebastos Theos (“August and God”). Public festivals and civic life revolved around his cult.
These local realities explain why Revelation portrays emperor worship as unavoidable and coercive.
Economic Pressure and the “Mark of the Beast”
Revelation describes a system where worship and commerce are inseparable:
“No one could buy or sell except the one who had the mark or the name of the beast.”
— Revelation 13:17 (written c. AD 95)
Participation in the emperor cult was often required for guilds, festivals, and trade. In Domitian’s Asia Minor, refusing to honor Caesar could mean exclusion from economic life, imprisonment, or worse.
The Number of the Beast and the Nero Legend
Revelation 13 ends with one of the most famous verses in the Bible:
“This calls for wisdom: let the one who has understanding calculate the number of the beast, for it is the number of a man, and his number is 666.”
— Revelation 13:18
Most scholars recognize this as gematria—a system where letters represent numbers. When “Nero Caesar” is written in Hebrew letters (נרון קסר, Neron Qesar), the total is 666. Some manuscripts of Revelation even read 616, which fits the Latin spelling “Nero Caesar” without the final n.
This shows the beast first pointed to Nero, remembered as the emperor who initiated state persecution of Christians. But why would John use Nero’s name when writing 25–30 years later under Domitian?
Because Romans themselves believed Nero was not really gone.
Suetonius: The Rumor of Nero’s Return
Suetonius (c. AD 110–120) explains that the rumor of Nero’s return never died:
“Although Nero was now dead and already missed by no one, yet in the course of many years, there were still people who dressed up like him and pretended to be him, and they met with such success that they stirred up serious disorders.”
— Suetonius, Life of Nero 57
This wasn’t harmless theater. People believed these impostors. The disturbances Suetonius describes show that Nero’s return was taken seriously enough to cause riots and uprisings.
Cassius Dio: False Neros and Domitian as a New Nero
Cassius Dio (c. AD 220) confirms the same phenomenon:
“In his time and afterward, many pretended to be Nero, and this caused great disturbances.”
— Roman History 66.19
And when he describes Domitian, Dio makes the connection explicit:
“He was a man of Nero’s type, cruel and lustful, but he concealed these vices at the beginning of his reign… Later, however, he showed himself the equal of Nero in cruelty.”
— Roman History 67.1–2
So the link is clear:
- The legend of Nero’s return haunted the empire.
- Domitian’s cruelty made many see him as a “new Nero.”
Why This Matters for Revelation
For John’s audience in Asia Minor, Nero was the archetype of the beast. The rumor of his return kept that fear alive. Under Domitian, those fears became present reality.
Thus, the number of the beast (666) was not a mystical code about the far future. It was a way of saying: the same spirit of persecution that lived in Nero now lives again in Domitian.
John’s Exile to Patmos
Irenaeus (c. AD 130–202), bishop of Lyons, records:
“It [Revelation] was seen no long time ago, but almost in our generation, at the end of Domitian’s reign.”
— Against Heresies 5.30.3
Eusebius (c. AD 260–340), the early church historian, confirms:
“John… was banished to the island of Patmos by the tyrant Domitian.”
— Ecclesiastical History 3.18
And John himself (c. AD 95) writes:
“I, John… was on the island called Patmos for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ.”
— Revelation 1:9
John’s exile reflects Domitian’s broader repression of religious dissent.
The Jewish Tax and Identity Pressure
Domitian enforced the fiscus Judaicus with severity.
Suetonius (writing c. AD 110–120) records:
“The tax on the Jews was levied with the utmost rigor. Those who lived like Jews without publicly admitting it were prosecuted.”
— Suetonius, Life of Domitian 12.2
This created legal confusion. Christians were caught between identities:
- If they looked Jewish, they were taxed.
- If they weren’t legally Jewish, they had no protections.
- If they refused emperor worship, they were called atheists.
Revelation reflects this tension:
“I know the slander of those who say they are Jews and are not, but are a synagogue of Satan.”
— Revelation 2:9 (c. AD 95)
This is not anti-Jewish polemic—it’s a real-time response to legal and political accusations in Smyrna, where Jewish communities may have denounced Christians to Roman authorities.
Martyrdom: Clemens and Domitilla
In AD 95, Domitian executed his cousin Flavius Clemens and banished his wife Domitilla.
Suetonius (c. AD 110–120) writes:
“He put to death his cousin Flavius Clemens… and banished his wife Domitilla… on the most trivial of charges.”
— Suetonius, Life of Domitian 15.1
Later Christian sources, such as Eusebius (c. AD 260–340), identified them as Christian sympathizers. Whether or not that is precise, their fate shows even Rome’s elite were not spared when religious loyalty was questioned.
Did Domitian Persecute Christians?
There is no formal edict against Christians from Domitian’s reign, but the evidence suggests targeted repression:
- John exiled to Patmos (c. AD 95)
- Clemens executed, Domitilla banished (AD 95)
- Christians accused of atheism or tax evasion
Persecution was not empire-wide, but under Domitian, Christians could be criminalized for their faith.
1 Clement — A Contemporary Voice from Rome
Around the same time, Clement of Rome (c. AD 95–96) wrote to the church in Corinth. His letter, 1 Clement, is the earliest Christian writing outside the New Testament.
Clement begins:
“Because of the sudden and repeated misfortunes and reverses that have happened to us, we have been somewhat tardy in turning our attention to the matters in dispute among you.”
— 1 Clement 1.1
This likely refers to Domitian’s persecutions in Rome. Clement adds:
“Many are in fear and distress, enduring torments and imprisonment.”
— 1 Clement 6.1
He recalls the deaths of Peter and Paul:
“Peter… endured many trials, and thus, having given his testimony, went to the place of glory.”
— 1 Clement 5.4
“Paul… having preached in the East and in the West… was martyred under the prefects.”
— 1 Clement 5.6–7
And he instructs believers to endure persecution without revolt:
“Let us submit ourselves to every decree of the rulers and authorities… For the rulers are God’s servants, and their judgment is not without purpose.”
— 1 Clement 61.1
Like Revelation, Clement reflects a church under pressure—calling for endurance, peace, and loyalty to God over Caesar.
Persecution in Revelation’s Own Words
Revelation itself (c. AD 95) bears witness to persecution under Domitian:
- Smyrna:
“Do not fear what you are about to suffer… The devil is about to throw some of you into prison… Be faithful unto death.” (Rev. 2:10)
- Pergamum:
“Antipas, my faithful witness… was killed among you.” (Rev. 2:13)
- Philadelphia:
“You have kept my word about patient endurance… I will keep you from the hour of trial.” (Rev. 3:10)
- The Martyrs Under the Altar:
“I saw under the altar the souls of those who had been slain for the word of God…” (Rev. 6:9–11)
- Conquering Through Death:
“They loved not their lives even unto death.” (Rev. 12:11)
- Beheaded for the Testimony:
“I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded for the testimony of Jesus.” (Rev. 20:4)
These passages are contemporary witnesses, showing the churches in Asia were suffering imprisonment, slander, and even martyrdom under Domitian.
The Broader New Testament Context
Critical and atheist scholars, who reject early Christian tradition about the dating of New Testament writings, place almost all of the New Testament (outside of Paul’s seven undisputed letters) into the very decades between Nero and Domitian (AD 65–96).
- Mark is usually dated just after the destruction of Jerusalem (c. AD 70).
- Matthew and Luke-Acts are typically placed in the 80s or 90s.
- John’s Gospel and letters are often dated to the 90s, during or immediately after Domitian’s reign.
- 1 Peter, Jude, and other Catholic Epistles are also slotted into this time period.
If that critical dating is correct, then the majority of the New Testament was written in an atmosphere of persecution and repression — either Nero’s violent purges, or Domitian’s pressures on Jews and Christians alike.
And these writings don’t minimize persecution — they emphasize it.
- 1 Peter explicitly refers to Christians suffering not for crimes, but simply for the name “Christian”: “If anyone suffers as a Christian, let him not be ashamed, but let him glorify God in that name.”
— 1 Peter 4:16 - Hebrews urges perseverance in the face of social rejection and suffering: “Recall the former days when, after you were enlightened, you endured a hard struggle with sufferings, sometimes being publicly exposed to reproach and affliction, and sometimes being partners with those so treated.”
— Hebrews 10:32–33 - The Gospels repeatedly stress Jesus’ warnings that his followers would be “hated by all nations” and “delivered up to tribulation” (cf. Matt. 24:9; Mark 13:13; Luke 21:17).
Even if one accepts the most skeptical dating, the consensus of critical scholarship places much of the New Testament in a context of Roman suspicion, Jewish-Christian conflict, and persecution.
The Witness of the Didache
The Didache (“Teaching”), one of the earliest non-biblical Christian writings (c. AD 80–100), echoes the same themes of persecution and endurance:
“The world-deceiver will appear as a son of God… and the earth will be delivered into his hands… many will fall away and perish; but those who endure in their faith will be saved.”
— Didache 16.4–5
Even outside the New Testament, Christians at the close of the 1st century were being taught to expect tribulation, resist deception, and endure to the end.
Common Themes Across the First-Century Witnesses
From Paul’s letters in the 50s to Revelation, Clement, and the Didache in the 90s, one theme unites the earliest church: faith in Christ expressed through endurance and moral living.
- Faith in Jesus as Lord:
Thomas confessed, “My Lord and my God” (John 20:28), words that in John’s Gospel belong to Christ, not Caesar. For Clement of Rome, writing near the end of Domitian’s reign, this same allegiance framed his encouragement to endure faithfully, even as believers in Rome suffered “torments and imprisonment” (1 Clement 6.1). - Endurance under persecution:
Paul praised the Thessalonians for imitating the persecuted churches in Judea (1 Thess. 2:14). Peter told believers not to be ashamed of the name “Christian” (1 Pet. 4:16). Hebrews reminded its readers of their “hard struggle with sufferings” (Heb. 10:32–33). Revelation called the church in Smyrna to be “faithful unto death” (Rev. 2:10). Clement honored Peter and Paul as models who suffered faithfully (1 Clement 5). The Didache urged endurance against the “world-deceiver” in the final trial (Didache 16.4–5). - Commitment to moral living:
Paul urged the churches to “live in a manner worthy of God” (1 Thess. 2:12). Hebrews stressed the “holiness without which no one will see the Lord” (Heb. 12:14). The Gospels and John’s letters call for love, purity, and obedience. Clement rebuked envy, pride, and strife as the causes of disorder, urging humility, peace, and good works (1 Clement 38–39). The Didache contrasted the Way of Life (love, generosity, self-control) with the Way of Death (greed, idolatry, violence).
Across these writings, the earliest Christians are consistent: they were not revolutionaries seeking to overthrow Rome, but a people set apart in loyalty to Christ and in moral living. They endured slander, imprisonment, and death while maintaining their baseline confession:
- Jesus is Lord, not Caesar.
- The church must endure suffering.
- The church must live a holy, distinct life.
Nerva and the Reversal
Domitian was assassinated in AD 96. The Senate chose Nerva (r. AD 96–98) as emperor, who immediately reversed many of Domitian’s harsher policies.
Cassius Dio (writing c. AD 220) records:
“He forbade the accusation of those who were living a Jewish life without admitting it.”
— Roman History 68.1
Nerva also released those unjustly banished, likely including John, who then returned to Ephesus and lived out his final years there.
Nerva’s short reign resembles Claudius (r. AD 41–54): both followed unstable emperors, restored legal balance, and unintentionally created space for Christianity to grow.
Conclusion
Domitian demanded worship, punished dissent, and blurred the legal categories that had once sheltered Christians under Judaism. John wrote Revelation from exile in Patmos, Clement wrote from a pressured Rome, and the churches of Asia endured imprisonment, slander, and death. The Didache echoed the same warning: the “world-deceiver” would arise, but those who endured to the end would be saved.
Then came Nerva, who reversed Domitian’s harsh policies, released exiles, and brought a short reprieve. Like Claudius before him, his unexpected moderation gave the Christian movement room to breathe, to write, and to expand.
From Paul’s earliest letters to the Didache, one message ties the first-century church together:
- Jesus is Lord, not Caesar.
- The church must endure suffering.
- The church must live a holy, distinct life.
In the end, Domitian’s title “Lord and God” died with him. But the words recorded by John endure:
“Thomas said to Him, ‘My Lord and my God.’”
Discover more from Living the Bible
Subscribe to get the latest posts sent to your email.
Living the Bible 