The Little Peace of the Church
For more than two centuries Christians lived with the expectation that violence could begin at any moment. The memory of Nero’s accusations after the fire of Rome, the pressure under Domitian, the legal judgments of Trajan that treated the name “Christian” as a crime, the local troubles recorded throughout the second century, the martyrdoms under Marcus Aurelius, the hostility under Severus, and especially the empire wide edicts of Decius and the targeted punishments of Valerian created an atmosphere of continual uncertainty.
Everything changed abruptly in the year 260. Valerian was taken captive by Shapur of Persia. His son Gallienus became sole emperor and immediately reversed the policies that had brought Christian property under seizure and bishops under threat. From this point until the year 303 Christians experienced the longest period of stability they had known. The era from the year 260 to the opening of Diocletian’s persecution in 303 is commonly called the Little Peace of the Church.
The surviving evidence for these decades includes an imperial letter recognizing Christian property, Christian testimony describing renewed festival gatherings, the minutes and letters of a public synod in Antioch, the writings of Christian scholars, and the archaeological remains of worship spaces and burial complexes. Together these sources show a Church entering a new phase of public life in the empire.
Gallienus and the Restoration of Christian Rights
The Edict of Gallienus
The beginning of this transformation is marked by the letter of Gallienus, preserved in Eusebius’ Church History. Gallienus orders that Christian properties be restored and instructs provincial governors to protect Christian assemblies:
I have ordered that the places which were formerly taken from the lawful possession of the Christians be restored to them.
Let the administrators of the provinces see to it that this decree is carried out with all diligence, so that no one shall prevent the Christians from assembling in the places belonging to them.
(Letter of Gallienus to the bishops of Egypt, Eusebius, Church History 7.13.9 to 10, written around AD 260)
This is the earliest surviving imperial statement that grants explicit legal protection to Christian meeting places. It recognizes Christians as lawful owners of property and commands Roman officials to protect their gatherings.
Dionysius of Alexandria and the Renewed Assemblies
Dionysius of Alexandria had lived through both the Decian and Valerian persecutions. His description of the change that followed Gallienus’ decree gives a vivid sense of how Christians experienced the new peace. He writes:
Then straightway there came again upon us a peace unbroken and indescribable, so great that even the least suspicious were amazed.
The festival assemblies were held, and our gatherings, formerly hindered, were restored with more splendor than before.
(Dionysius of Alexandria, letter preserved in Eusebius, Church History 7.22, written in the early 260s)
This testimony shows that Christian assemblies were restored immediately and that they were conducted openly and joyfully. The language of “festival assemblies” and “gatherings formerly hindered” describes concrete public worship practices returning to life.
Paul of Samosata and the Public Character of Christian Communities
Public Synods and the Imperial Decision
A further indication of the Church’s new public standing is the controversy surrounding Paul of Samosata, who served as bishop of Antioch during the 260s. Paul taught that Christ was a mere man in whom the divine Word dwelt as it had in earlier prophets. He was also accused of personal pride and of treating his role as bishop as a means of civic advancement.
A synod of bishops met in Antioch to examine Paul’s life and teaching. Their decision survives in Eusebius:
Though Paul was present with us for a long time, yet we found him not to be among us, for his manner of life was alien to the rule which has been handed down.
He has brought reproach upon our order by worldly pride, by arrogance in dress, and by the company of officials, and he has introduced teachings contrary to the faith, saying that our Saviour is a mere man, and that the Word and Wisdom of God are in him as in one of the prophets.
(Synodical letter concerning Paul of Samosata, Eusebius, Church History 7.30.19 to 20, written around AD 268)
Paul refused to relinquish the church building after the synod removed him, and the dispute eventually reached the emperor Aurelian. Eusebius records the decision:
When after much time had passed and many synods had been held, and Paul still occupied the church building, the matter was referred to the emperor Aurelian. He ordered that the building be given to those with whom the bishops of Italy and of the city of Rome were in communion.
(Eusebius, Church History 7.30.18, describing events around AD 272)
The presence of a Christian church building in Antioch, substantial enough to require an imperial ruling, reflects a broader pattern of Christian worship spaces that had already developed before the Little Peace.
Early Evidence for Designated Christian Buildings for Worship
(Distinguished from catacombs, burial spaces, and ordinary house gatherings)
| Approx. Date | Location | Type of Christian Gathering Place | Primary Evidence | Source Citation and Date of Writing |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Late second to early third century | Alexandria | Distinct Christian “houses of prayer” | Origen refers to “the houses of prayer where the Christians meet” | Origen, Against Celsus 8.75, c. AD 248 |
| AD 201 | Edessa | Recognized meeting place damaged in a flood | Chronicle notes damage to “the meeting place of the Christians” | Chronicle of Edessa, entry for AD 201 |
| AD 230–250 | Dura Europos | House converted into a worship complex | Excavated building destroyed in AD 256 | Archaeological excavation |
| AD 249–251 | Carthage | Christian gathering places seized | Cyprian reports “the places where we were accustomed to gather” | Cyprian, Letter 80.1, c. AD 250 |
| AD 249–260 | Alexandria, Caesarea, Rome | “Large and spacious churches” already present | Eusebius describes “large assemblies and spacious churches” | Eusebius, Church History 8.1.5 |
| AD 260 | Provinces under Gallienus | Christian buildings restored | Gallienus orders meeting places returned | Eusebius, Church History 7.13.9–10 |
| AD 268–272 | Antioch | Major designated church building | Aurelian’s legal ruling | Eusebius, Church History 7.30.18–20 |
Christian Teaching, Literature, and Community Life During the Little Peace
The stability that followed the decree of Gallienus allowed Christian communities to focus on worship, moral instruction, doctrinal clarity, and pastoral care. The literary and archaeological sources that survive from these decades give a fuller picture of Christian life than would first appear from the scarcity of surviving manuscripts. The harmony between these sources shows a Church whose thought, worship, and communal structures were developing in an atmosphere largely free from imperial disruption.
Voices from North Africa: Commodian
One of the earliest clear voices from this period is Commodian, a Christian teacher writing in North Africa. His Instructiones, composed around the years 260 to 280, offer moral admonitions and exhortations to purity. His tone reflects a community navigating daily life in a pagan world with confidence in divine judgment. He writes:
You who believe in Christ, keep your hearts undefiled.
Do not mingle with unbelievers or walk in the counsel of the wicked.
The Judge sees all things and will render to each according to his deeds.(Commodian, Instructiones 1.8, written around AD 260 to 280)
He also warns Christians to remember their calling and avoid the practices that had once shaped their former lives. He says:
The world hates the servants of God because they are mindful of Him.
Remain steadfast, for the Lord Christ will come and will judge the living and the dead.(Commodian, Instructiones 1.35, written around AD 260 to 280)
These writings reveal a Christian moral consciousness that fits well with what we see in inscriptions and other texts from these years. Christians understood themselves as a people distinct from their surroundings, committed to purity of conduct, confident that Christ would return.
The Didascalia Apostolorum: Church Order in the East
A second window into Christian life during these decades comes from the Didascalia Apostolorum, a church manual originating earlier in the third century but widely used across the Syrian churches during the Little Peace. Its instructions reflect the pastoral and communal expectations of the time. It says:
Let the bishop be your leader and shepherd, for he watches over your souls.
Let the deacons be like the eyes of the Church, caring for the poor and examining the needs of all.(Didascalia Apostolorum 9, widely used 260 to 300)
The Didascalia also describes Christian worship and the discipline of community life:
Gather every Lord’s Day, and break bread, and give thanks, having confessed your sins,
that your sacrifice may be pure.(Didascalia Apostolorum 13, circulating 260 to 300)
And it describes the role of prayer within the community:
Let the widows be honored, for they are the altar of God.
Let them pray unceasingly for all who are in the Church.(Didascalia Apostolorum 15, circulated 260 to 300)
These instructions show a well-structured Church with an ordered hierarchy, regular weekly worship, roles for widows and deacons, and a commitment to purity and unity.
The Disputation at Antioch: Malchion and Paul of Samosata
The doctrinal life of Christian communities during these years appears most clearly in the dispute centered on Paul of Samosata. The public disputation between Paul and Malchion, a presbyter in Antioch trained in philosophy, provides a rare look at third-century theological debate. Malchion says:
You say the Word came to dwell in Jesus as in a prophet, yet you deny that He is the eternal Wisdom who was with God before all things.
(Malchion, Disputation with Paul, preserved in Eusebius, Church History 7.29, written around AD 268)
Malchion insists that Christian teaching must affirm the eternal preexistence of the divine Word:
You speak of Jesus as a man who attained glory, but we proclaim Him as the divine Wisdom who became man for us.
(Malchion, Disputation with Paul, c. 268)
These fragments demonstrate the level of intellectual engagement Christians could sustain during these decades of peace.
Methodius of Olympus: Theology at the End of the Peace
Near the end of the Little Peace another major Christian thinker appears in Methodius of Olympus. His works reflect deep concern for virtue, purity, and the resurrection. Writing around the years 290 to 300, Methodius says:
The soul is adorned with the virtues as a bride, and Christ receives her when she has purified herself
and kept herself from corruption.(Methodius, Symposium 2.6, written around AD 290 to 300)
He also affirms the unity of body and soul in the resurrection:
The resurrection is the restoration of the whole man, the body joined again to the soul, that both may receive the reward of their deeds.
(Methodius, On the Resurrection 1.4, written around AD 290 to 300)
His work shows the maturity of Christian theology just before the outbreak of the Great Persecution.
Victorinus of Pettau: The First Latin Commentary on Revelation
Latin Christianity also produced writings in this period. Victorinus of Pettau, the earliest known Latin commentator on Revelation, wrote during the decades before he was martyred in the year 303. In his commentary he says:
The Church is the virgin who keeps herself for Christ and refuses to be defiled by the world.
(Victorinus, Commentary on Revelation 3.14, written around AD 260 to 303)
He also emphasizes perseverance:
He who perseveres in faith, even in the face of death, receives the crown of life promised by the Lord.
(Victorinus, Commentary on Revelation 2.10, written around AD 260 to 303)
Victorinus reveals a Latin Christian world confident in the teaching of Scripture and the promise of Christ’s return.
Arnobius of Sicca: A North African Voice
A North African voice from the very end of this period appears in Arnobius of Sicca, who wrote Against the Nations around the years 295 to 303. Arnobius defends Christian belief in the divinity of Christ and the moral transformation produced by Christian conversion. He writes:
We are mocked for confessing that Christ is God, yet we persevere, knowing that His power has transformed our lives.
(Arnobius, Against the Nations 1.5, written around AD 295 to 303)
He also describes the growth and moral influence of Christian communities:
The Church grows not by the sword but by persuasion and by the example of a holy community.
(Arnobius, Against the Nations 2.1, written around AD 295 to 303)
Arnobius gives voice to the public confidence of Christians at the end of the Little Peace.
Other Christian Writings of the Era
The Acts of Archelaus and Manes, a Christian dialogue against Manichaeism written around the years 278 to 280, states:
The truth of Christ is confirmed by the harmony of the prophets and by the lives of the apostles who sealed their testimony with their blood.
(Acts of Archelaus and Manes 42, written around AD 278 to 280)
Syriac Christianity also produced texts in this era. The Teaching of Addai, associated with Edessa and dated to the late third century, proclaims:
Blessed are those who keep themselves from the idols of the world and walk in the way of Christ who brings life to those who believe.
(Teaching of Addai 7, Edessa, late third century)
And the Syriac exhortation texts call believers to renewal:
Beloved, let us put off the old man and put on Christ, for He has called us into the light of His kingdom.
(Syriac Exhortation, Homily 3, written around AD 270 to 300)
Archaeological Testimony
Archaeology provides further evidence. Catacomb inscriptions from Rome in the late third century show Christians identifying themselves openly as believers and noting the offices they held. One reads:
Aurelius Gaius, servant of Christ, rests in peace.
(Catacomb inscription, Rome, late third century)
Another says:
Severianus the presbyter sleeps in the peace of the Lord.
(Catacomb inscription, Rome, late third century)
Such inscriptions demonstrate that Christians were organized, confident, and socially visible even before the dramatic expansion of the fourth century.
Porphyry and the Wider Intellectual World
These Christian voices existed alongside the intellectual resistance of Porphyry of Tyre, a Neoplatonic philosopher who wrote a detailed critique of Christianity between the years 270 and 300. His work shows that Christian Scripture, teaching, and community life were prominent enough to draw attention from the most educated circles of the empire. Although his writings survive only in fragments, their existence demonstrates that Christianity was part of the larger intellectual conversation during the Little Peace.
The Lost Literature of the Little Peace
The Destruction of Christian Writings Under Diocletian
The relatively small number of surviving writings from this forty year period is not an indication that Christians were inactive or silent. The primary reason for the loss is the deliberate destruction of Christian literature during the Great Persecution that began in the year 303.
The first edict of Diocletian required the destruction of Christian writings. Lactantius describes the order:
It was commanded that the churches be torn down, and that the Scriptures be burned with fire. Those who held office in the churches were to be arrested.
(Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 12.1, written after AD 313)
Eusebius, who witnessed the persecution in Palestine, records the same reality:
We saw with our own eyes the houses of prayer thrown down to their foundations, and the divine Scriptures burned in the open marketplace.
(Eusebius, Church History 8.2.1, describing events beginning in AD 303)
He adds:
Search was made for the sacred books, and they were delivered to be burned.
(Eusebius, Church History 8.3.1)
Because Christian writings were kept in churches, bishop’s houses, cemeterial chapels, and teaching centers, these locations were primary targets. Eusebius laments:
Many writings of the ancient martyrs and of those who bore witness to the truth have perished in the persecution recently suffered by the churches.
(Eusebius, Church History 8.13.7)
The persecution targeted not only people but memory. Books were easy to find and burn, and many of the writings produced in the peaceful years between 260 and 303 were lost.
The Emperors Who Maintained the Peace
The stability that Christians experienced after the decree of Gallienus continued under the emperors who followed him. Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Florian, Probus, Carus, and the sons of Carus left no record of empire wide action against the Church. Christian assemblies continued openly. Pastors taught. Writers composed treatises and commentaries. Disputes such as the one surrounding Paul of Samosata were resolved by synods rather than by fear of imperial coercion.
Aurelian’s involvement in that controversy is the clearest window into imperial engagement with the Church during these years. When Paul refused to surrender the church building at Antioch after the synod deposed him, the case was appealed to the emperor. Eusebius writes:
When after much time had passed and many synods had been held, and Paul still occupied the church building, the matter was referred to the emperor Aurelian. He ordered that the building be given to those with whom the bishops of Italy and of the city of Rome were in communion.
(Eusebius, Church History 7.30.18, describing events around AD 272)
This ruling favored the wider episcopal consensus and shows that Christian property was recognized in law and that Christian disputes could be settled by appealing to imperial authority. It is an image of the Church operating within public legal structures rather than in hiding from them.
When Diocletian became emperor in the year 284 he preserved the long tradition of toleration that had begun under Gallienus. Christians served in public roles and lived in the orbit of imperial families. Eusebius later reflects on their presence within the administration:
When the rulers employed Christians in their services and entrusted them with authority, those who observed their lives admired the faith and the zeal that marked their conduct.
(Eusebius, Church History 8.1.2, referring to the years before AD 303)
Christians therefore lived openly, engaged in civic responsibilities, and were regarded with respect in many public contexts. Their faith was not confined to private spaces but was visible within the structures of the state.
Christian Soldiers During the Little Peace
The most striking evidence of Christian integration into public life during this period is the presence of Christians in the Roman military. Several accounts from different regions show Christians serving as soldiers and officers, and some being executed when they refused to participate in rites that conflicted with their faith.
A notable case appears at the very beginning of the Little Peace in Caesarea. Marinus, a Christian serving as a centurion, was accused when he was about to receive promotion. His refusal to offer sacrifice led directly to his death. The account states:
Marinus was in the army and had the rank of centurion. When he was about to receive a promotion, he was accused of being a Christian. He refused to offer sacrifice, declaring that he had long served Christ.
He was led away and immediately beheaded.(Marinus of Caesarea, martyr account preserved in Eusebius, Church History 7.15, describing events around AD 260)
This testimony shows that Christians held rank in the military and that their refusal to obey sacrificial commands could lead to execution even during years of general peace. The issue was not their military service as such, but their refusal to participate in religious rites that they believed violated their allegiance to Christ.
Another important account appears in North Africa in the year 295. The Acts of Maximilian record a Roman proconsul acknowledging that Christians were numerous in the army. When Maximilian refused the oath of service, the outcome was immediate. The transcript reads:
When Maximilian refused the military oath, the proconsul said to him, There are Christians serving today in the army. Maximilian remained firm.
The sentence was read: Maximilian is to be executed by the sword.
And he was executed at once.(Acts of Maximilian 3 to 9, dated AD 295)
The key line is the admission that “there are Christians serving today in the army.” This statement confirms that Christian military service was common by the late third century. The fact that Maximilian is executed for refusing service shows that the empire could tolerate Christians in the army, but not when they openly rejected the obligations of the oath.
A related case comes from Tingitana in the year 298. Marcellus, a centurion of the Seventh Legion, refused to participate in a military ceremony honoring the emperor. His profession of loyalty to Christ cost him his life. The account states:
Marcellus, a centurion of the Thundering Legion, cast aside his military belt and declared, I serve Jesus Christ the eternal King.
The sentence was read: Marcellus is to be executed with the sword.
He was executed immediately.(Passion of Marcellus 3 to 6, dated AD 298)
This episode demonstrates that Christians did not always see military service and allegiance to Christ as compatible when imperial ritual demanded a form of worship they could not give. Their refusal brought the penalty of death even before any empire wide persecution began.
A similar moment occurred at the court of Diocletian, where a soldier refused to join in a sacrificial act. Lactantius describes the event:
A certain man, who was a soldier, refused to take part in the sacrifice and confessed that he was a Christian.
He was immediately put to death.(Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors 10.3, describing events around AD 298)
This account confirms the presence of Christians serving very near the emperor himself and shows that clashes over ritual obedience were already occurring before the outbreak of the wider persecution.
Eusebius summarizes the general condition of Christians in public and military life during these decades:
Many of those who later became most violent against us had before this time lived familiarly with the brethren, and some of them had wives who were believers.
(Eusebius, Church History 8.1.1)
Taken together, these testimonies confirm that Christians served throughout the Roman army during the Little Peace and that some chose martyrdom rather than conform to religious practices they believed to be forbidden. The Little Peace was therefore not an absolute end of suffering, but a period in which persecution became localized and was often triggered by specific conflicts over ritual and loyalty.
The Tetrarchy and Subtle Shifts in Imperial Expectations
In the year 293 Diocletian reorganized the government by appointing Maximian as co emperor and elevating Constantius and Galerius as junior rulers. This arrangement, often called the Tetrarchy, strengthened the structure of the state but also renewed attention to the religious rituals that were believed to protect the empire.
Christians continued to live and worship freely during the early years of the Tetrarchy. Communities gathered, inscriptions were carved, writers taught, and synods addressed questions of faith. Yet the presence of Christians within imperial service, combined with their refusal to participate in certain traditional sacrifices, meant that their relationship to public ritual stood in sharper contrast against the renewed emphasis on ancestral observance and the favor of the gods.
Christian writers of the period were aware of the contrast between Christian faith and pagan practice and urged perseverance and holiness. Victorinus, in his commentary on Revelation, speaks of Christian endurance:
He who perseveres in faith, even in the face of trial, receives the crown of life promised by the Lord.
(Victorinus, Commentary on Revelation 2.10, written around AD 260 to 303)
Arnobius, writing in North Africa near the close of this period, emphasizes the moral distinctiveness of Christian communities:
The Church grows not by the sword but by persuasion and by the example of a holy community.
(Arnobius, Against the Nations 2.1, written around AD 295 to 303)
These voices show how Christians understood their place in the empire. They did not seek power by force but by persuasion and by the witness of a distinct way of life.
In these same decades the philosopher Porphyry of Tyre wrote an extended critique of Christian belief and biblical interpretation. Although his work survives only in fragments, its existence within this period demonstrates that Christian teaching had become significant enough to draw detailed examination and opposition from the philosophical world. Christianity was no longer only a social and moral presence. It had become part of the intellectual discourse of the empire.
Conclusion: The Mature Christian Life of the Little Peace
The years between 260 and 303 represent the first sustained era in which Christians lived, worshiped, taught, and organized themselves openly under Roman authority. The evidence from Christian writings, synodical decisions, inscriptions, martyr acts, and imperial rulings shows that Christian communities were confident and active. They built designated worship spaces, gathered each Lord’s Day, instructed converts, cared for widows and the poor, debated doctrine in public, and produced theological writings and commentaries.
Some Christians served in the army and wore the uniform of Rome. Some were executed for refusing to perform rites they believed violated their faith. Others taught, wrote poetry, engaged in philosophical argument, or preserved the memory of the martyrs. All of these activities unfolded within a world of relative stability, shaped by the legal protection first granted by Gallienus.
The Little Peace was therefore a formative period for Christian identity. It revealed how the Church lived when not under threat, showed the kind of structures and teachings that emerged when Christians were able to gather freely, and demonstrated that their faith could flourish not only in times of persecution but also in seasons of peace.
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