Multiplying by Mission: Session 9 at Mission Lake

November 1, 2025November 2, 2025 / Jason Conrad / Leave a comment

40% Growth Then, 5% Growth Now — What We Must Learn Anew

Our goal in this session is to present the essence of the Christian faith as seen through the earliest and most significant pieces of literature from the ancient church and from the Roman world in which it emerged. We are seeking to understand what is essential for Christianity—those truths that form the common foundation of belief and moral life—as distinguished from what is diverse in local application or interpretation. From the earliest creeds of the 30s AD to the writings of Eusebius in the early 300s, the evidence will show that the rule of faith remained consistent in its core confession of God, Christ, the Spirit, resurrection, judgment, and ethical life, while at the same time the Church celebrated and respected diversity in practice and interpretation among its many communities.

Earliest Christian Creeds and Hymns

Passage	Approx. Date (Content)	Theme / Focus	Broad Scholarly Consensus
1 Cor 15:3-7	Early 30s AD	Death, burial, and resurrection of Christ	Universal — accepted by atheist and believing scholars as the earliest Christian tradition
Phil 2:6-11	Early 30s AD	Pre-existence, incarnation, and exaltation	Universal — recognized as a pre-Pauline hymn used in earliest worship
Rom 1:3-4	Early 30s AD	Son of God declared in power by resurrection	Strong — widely regarded as an early Palestinian creed
1 Thess 4:14	40s AD	Resurrection hope and life to come	Strong — early confessional formula of faith and hope
Gal 3:28	40s AD	Equality and unity of believers in Christ	Strong — baptismal or ethical confession of oneness
Rom 12:9-13	40s AD	Love and moral conduct among believers	Moderate–Strong — early ethical summary shaped by creed
Col 1:15-20	40s AD (Pauline authorship disputed)	Cosmic Christ reconciling all things	Strong — pre-Pauline hymn emphasizing Christ’s lordship

Romans 1:3-4

Cited by Paul in Romans (AD 57-58); creed from the early 30s AD.

Concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh,
and was declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness
by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord.
(Rom 1:3-4 ESV)

1 Corinthians 15:3-11

Cited by Paul in 1 Corinthians (AD 54-55); creed from the early 30s AD.

For I delivered to you as of first importance what I also received:
that Christ died for our sins in accordance with the Scriptures,
that he was buried,
that he was raised on the third day in accordance with the Scriptures,
and that he appeared to Cephas, then to the twelve.
Then he appeared to more than five hundred brothers at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen asleep.
Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles.
Last of all, as to one untimely born, he appeared also to me.
For I am the least of the apostles, unworthy to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God.
But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace toward me was not in vain. On the contrary, I worked harder than any of them — though it was not I, but the grace of God that is with me.
Whether then it was I or they, so we preach and so you believed.
(1 Cor 15:3-11 ESV)

Philippians 2:6-11

Cited by Paul in Philippians (AD 55-60); chiastic hymn from the early 30s AD.

Christ Jesus, who, though he was in the form of God,
did not count equality with God a thing to be grasped,
but emptied himself, by taking the form of a servant,
being born in the likeness of men.
And being found in human form, he humbled himself
by becoming obedient to the point of death, even death on a cross.
Therefore God has highly exalted him
and bestowed on him the name that is above every name,
so that at the name of Jesus every knee should bow,
in heaven and on earth and under the earth,
and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord,
to the glory of God the Father.
(Phil 2:6-11 ESV)

1 Thessalonians 4:14

Cited by Paul in 1 Thessalonians (AD 49-50); confessional line from the 40s AD.

For since we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so, through Jesus, God will bring with him those who have fallen asleep.
(1 Thess 4:14 ESV)

Galatians 3:28

Cited by Paul in Galatians (AD 48-49); baptismal or ethical formula from the 40s AD.

There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.
(Gal 3:28 ESV)

Romans 12:9-13

Cited by Paul in Romans (AD 57-58); early ethical summary reflecting creedal life of the 40s AD.

Let love be genuine. Abhor what is evil; hold fast to what is good.
Love one another with brotherly affection. Outdo one another in showing honor.
Do not be slothful in zeal, be fervent in spirit, serve the Lord.
Rejoice in hope, be patient in tribulation, be constant in prayer.
Contribute to the needs of the saints and seek to show hospitality.
(Rom 12:9-13 ESV)

Colossians 1:15-20

Quoted in the (disputed) Letter to the Colossians (AD 55-60); chiastic hymn originating in the 40s AD.

He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn of all creation.
For by him all things were created, in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or dominions or rulers or authorities — all things were created through him and for him.
And he is before all things, and in him all things hold together.
And he is the head of the body, the church. He is the beginning, the firstborn from the dead, that in everything he might be preeminent.
For in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell,
and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross.
(Col 1:15-20 ESV)

Ignatius of Antioch

Letter to the Philadelphians 3–4
Written about AD 107 while en route to martyrdom.

Be careful to share in only one Eucharist, for there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ and one cup that brings us together in His blood, one altar just as there is one bishop with the presbyters and deacons who serve with him.
Whatever you do, then, do it as those who serve God.

Do not be misled by strange teachings or by old tales that are useless.
If we still live according to the standards of Judaism, we admit that we have not received grace.
The most divine prophets lived according to Christ Jesus, and for this reason they were persecuted; they were inspired by His grace to convince the unbelieving that there is one God who has revealed Himself through Jesus Christ His Son—His Word, who came forth from silence, and who in every way pleased the One who sent Him.

Therefore, my brothers and sisters, make every effort to share in the one Eucharist; for there is one flesh of our Lord Jesus Christ, and one cup that brings us together in His blood, one altar, as there is one bishop with the presbytery and deacons, my fellow servants.
Whatever you do, do it in harmony with God. Where there is diversity, if there is unity of faith and love, there God is glorified.

Those who repent and come together in the unity of the Church will belong to God, so that they may live according to Jesus Christ.
Do not let anything be done without the bishop; keep your bodies as the temple of God; love unity; avoid divisions; be imitators of Jesus Christ as He is of His Father.
The Lord forgives all who repent, if they turn back to the unity of God and to the council of the bishop.
I trust in the grace of Jesus Christ that He will free you from every chain.

I warn you, then, to stay away from the evil plants that Jesus Christ does not cultivate, because they are not the planting of the Father.
I have not found division among you, but rather a kind of purification.
For all who belong to God and Jesus Christ are with the bishop; and those who repent and return to the unity of the Church will also belong to God, that they may live according to Jesus Christ.

Historical Note

Ignatius is addressing a mixed congregation of Jewish and Gentile believers still learning how to relate the Mosaic law to the grace of Christ. His warning not to “live according to Judaism” meant that Gentile Christians must not treat the law as binding for salvation, yet his comment about diversity within unity shows that he respected those Jewish believers who continued their ancestral customs. Like James and Paul at the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15, Ignatius maintains that grace and unity in Christ are essential, while cultural practices may differ as long as they do not divide the Church.

Pliny the Younger to Emperor Trajan

Letters 10.96–97
Written about AD 112 describing the Christians of Bithynia.

It is my practice, my lord, to refer to you all matters concerning which I am in doubt.
For who can better give guidance to my hesitation or inform my ignorance?
I have never participated in trials of Christians; therefore I do not know what offenses are to be punished or investigated, or to what extent.

Meanwhile, in the case of those who were denounced to me as Christians, I have observed the following procedure.
I interrogated them as to whether they were Christians; those who confessed I interrogated a second and a third time, threatening them with punishment; those who persisted I ordered executed.
For I had no doubt that, whatever the nature of their creed, stubbornness and inflexible obstinacy surely deserve to be punished.

Those who denied that they were or had been Christians, when they invoked the gods in words dictated by me, offered prayer with incense and wine to your image, which I had ordered to be brought for this purpose together with statues of the gods, and moreover cursed Christ—none of which, it is said, those who are really Christians can be forced to do—these I thought should be discharged.
Others named by the informer declared that they were Christians, but then denied it; they said that they had ceased to be so, some three years before, others many years, some as much as twenty years.
They all worshiped your image and the statues of the gods, and cursed Christ.

They asserted, however, that the sum and substance of their fault or error had been that they were accustomed to meet on a fixed day before dawn and sing responsively a hymn to Christ as to a god, and to bind themselves by an oath—not to some crime, but not to commit fraud, theft, or adultery, not to falsify their trust, nor to refuse to return a deposit when called upon to do so.
When this was over, it was their custom to depart and to assemble again to partake of food—but ordinary and innocent food.
Even this, they affirmed, they had ceased to do after my edict, by which, in accordance with your instructions, I had forbidden political associations.

Accordingly, I judged it all the more necessary to find out what the truth was by torturing two female slaves who were called deaconesses.
But I discovered nothing else but depraved, excessive superstition.
I therefore postponed the investigation and hastened to consult you.
For many persons of every age, every rank, and also of both sexes are and will be endangered.
For the contagion of this superstition has spread not only to the cities but also to the villages and farms.
But it seems possible to check and cure it.

Trajan’s Reply

You have followed the right course, my dear Secundus, in investigating the cases of those who were denounced to you as Christians, for it is not possible to lay down any general rule that would apply as a fixed standard.
They are not to be sought out; if they are brought before you and the charge against them is proved, they are to be punished, with this reservation, however, that if anyone denies that he is a Christian and really proves it—that is, by worshiping our gods—he shall be pardoned on the ground of repentance.
Anonymous accusations have no place in any prosecution, for this is both a bad precedent and out of keeping with the spirit of our age.

Aristides of Athens

Apology XV–XVI
Written about AD 125–140 to Emperor Hadrian.

But the Christians, O King, reckon the beginning of their religion from Jesus Christ, who is named the Son of God Most High; and it is said that God came down from heaven, and from a Hebrew virgin took and clothed Himself with flesh, and that the Son of God lived in a daughter of man.
This is taught in the gospel, as it is called, which a short time ago was preached among them; and you also, if you will read therein, may perceive the power which belongs to it.

This Jesus, then, was born of the race of the Hebrews; and He had twelve disciples, in order that a certain dispensation of His might be fulfilled.
He was pierced by the Jews, and He died and was buried; and they say that after three days He rose and ascended to heaven.

Thereupon these twelve disciples went forth into the known parts of the world and taught concerning His greatness with all humility and soberness.
And those then who still observe the righteousness which was enjoined by their preaching are called Christians.

And these are they who more than all the nations of the earth have found the truth.
For they acknowledge God, the Creator and Maker of all things, in the only-begotten Son and in the Holy Spirit; and besides Him they worship no other God.

They have the commandments of the Lord Jesus Christ Himself graven upon their hearts; and they keep them, looking for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come.

They do not commit adultery or fornication; they do not bear false witness; they do not covet the things of others; they honor father and mother; they do good to those who are their neighbors; and they judge uprightly.

They do not worship idols made in the likeness of man.
Whatever they would not wish others to do to them, they do not practice themselves.

They do not eat of the food offered to idols, for they are pure.
They comfort their oppressors and make them their friends; they do good to their enemies.

Their women are pure as virgins, and their daughters are modest.
Their men abstain from all unlawful union and from all uncleanness, in the hope of a recompense to come in another world.

They love one another.
They do not turn away a widow, and they rescue the orphan.
He who has gives ungrudgingly to him who has not.

If they see a stranger, they take him under their roof, and they rejoice over him as over a real brother.
If anyone among them is poor and needy, and they have no spare food, they fast two or three days in order to supply the needy with their necessary food.

They observe scrupulously the commandments of their Messiah.
They live honestly and soberly, as the Lord their God ordered them.
They give thanks to Him every hour, for all meat and drink and other blessings.

If any righteous man among them passes away from the world, they rejoice and thank God, and escort his body with songs and thanksgiving as if he were setting out from one place to another.

When a child has been born to one of them, they give thanks to God; and if it chance to die in childhood, they praise God mightily, as for one who has passed through the world without sins.

If anyone of them be a man of wealth, and he sees that one of their number is in want, he provides for the needy without boasting.

And if they see a stranger, they take him under their roof and rejoice over him as over a brother; for they do not call them brethren after the flesh, but brethren after the Spirit and in God.

Whenever one of their poor passes away from the world, each of them, according to his ability, gives heed to him and carefully sees to his burial.

Such is the law of the Christians, O King, and such is their manner of life.
And verily, this is a new people, and there is something divine in them.

Epistle to Diognetus

Written about AD 150–180 by an unknown Christian author probably from Asia Minor. He refers to himself as a “disciple of the Apostles” and a “teacher of the Gentiles.”

1 – Purpose of Writing

Most excellent Diognetus: I can see that you deeply desire to learn how Christians worship their God. You have so carefully and earnestly asked your questions about them: What is it about the God they believe in, and the form of religion they observe, that lets them look down upon the world and despise death? Why do they reject the Greek gods and the Jewish superstitions alike? What about the affection they all have for each other? And why has this new group and their practices come to life only now, and not long ago? …

5 – The Manners of Christians

For the Christians are distinguished from other men neither by country, nor language, nor the customs which they observe. For they neither inhabit cities of their own, nor employ a peculiar form of speech, nor lead a life which is marked out by any singularity. The course of conduct which they follow has not been devised by any speculation or deliberation of inquisitive men; nor do they, like some, proclaim themselves the advocates of any merely human doctrines.

But, inhabiting Greek as well as barbarian cities, according as the lot of each of them has determined, and following the customs of the natives in respect to clothing, food, and the rest of their ordinary conduct, they display to us their wonderful and confessedly striking method of life. They dwell in their own countries, but simply as sojourners. As citizens, they share in all things with others, and yet endure all things as if foreigners. Every foreign land is to them as their native country, and every land of their birth as a land of strangers. They marry, as do all [others]; they beget children; but they do not destroy their offspring. They have a common table, but not a common bed. They are in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven.

They obey the prescribed laws, and at the same time surpass the laws by their lives. They love all men and are persecuted by all. They are unknown and condemned; they are put to death, and restored to life. They are poor, yet make many rich; they are in lack of all things, and yet abound in all; they are dishonored, and yet in their very dishonor are glorified. They are evil spoken of, and yet are justified; they are reviled, and bless; they are insulted, and repay the insult with honor; they do good, yet are punished as evil-doers. When punished, they rejoice as if quickened into life; they are assailed by the Jews as foreigners, and are persecuted by the Greeks; yet those who hate them are unable to assign any reason for their hatred.

6 – The Relation of Christians to the World

To sum up all in one word — what the soul is in the body, Christians are in the world. The soul is dispersed through all the members of the body, and Christians are scattered through all the cities of the world. The soul dwells in the body, yet is not of the body; and Christians dwell in the world, yet are not of the world. The invisible soul is guarded by the visible body, and Christians are known indeed to be in the world, but their godliness remains invisible.

The flesh hates the soul, and wars against it, though itself suffering no injury, because it is prevented from enjoying pleasures; the world also hates the Christians, though in nowise injured, because they renounce pleasures. The soul loves the flesh that hates it, and [loves also] the members; Christians likewise love those that hate them. The soul is imprisoned in the body, yet keeps together that very body; and Christians are confined in the world as in a prison, and yet they keep together the world. The immortal soul dwells in a mortal tabernacle; and Christians dwell as sojourners in corruptible [bodies], looking for an incorruptible dwelling in the heavens. The soul, when but ill-provided with food and drink, becomes better; in like manner, the Christians, though subjected day by day to punishment, increase the more in number. God has assigned them this illustrious position, which it were unlawful for them to forsake.

7 – The Manifestation of Christ

For, as I said, this was no mere earthly invention which was delivered to them, nor is it a mere human system of opinion, which they judge it right to preserve so carefully, nor has a dispensation of mere human mysteries been committed to them, but truly God Himself, who is almighty, the Creator of all things, and invisible, has sent from heaven, and placed among men, [Him who is] the truth, and the holy and incomprehensible Word, and has firmly established Him in their hearts. He did not, as one might have imagined, send to men any servant, or angel, or ruler, or any one of those who bear sway over earthly things, or one of those to whom the government of things in the heavens has been entrusted, but the very Creator and Fashioner of all things — by whom He made the heavens — by whom he enclosed the sea within its proper bounds — whose ordinances all the stars faithfully observe — from whom the sun has received the measure of his daily course to be observed — whom the moon obeys, being commanded to shine in the night, and whom the stars also obey, following the moon in her course; by whom all things have been arranged, and placed within their proper limits, and to whom all are subject — the heavens and the things that are therein, the earth and the things that are therein, the sea and the things that are therein — fire, air, and the abyss — the things which are in the heights, the things which are in the depths, and the things which lie between. This [messenger] He sent to them. Was it then, as one might conceive, for the purpose of exercising tyranny, or of inspiring fear and terror? By no means, but under the influence of clemency and meekness. As a king sends his son, who is also a king, so sent He Him; as God He sent Him; as to men He sent Him; as a Savior He sent Him, and as seeking to persuade, not to compel us; for violence has no place in the character of God. As calling us He sent Him, not as vengefully pursuing us; as loving us He sent Him, not as judging us. For He will yet send Him to judge us, and who shall endure His appearing?

– There is a gap in the manuscript evidence that resumes with this below –

Do you not see them exposed to wild beasts, that they may be persuaded to deny the Lord, and yet not overcome? Do you not see that the more of them are punished, the greater becomes the number of the rest? This does not seem to be the work of man: this is the power of God; these are the evidences of His manifestation.

10 – Imitating God

… And if you love Him, you will be an imitator of His kindness. And do not wonder that a man may become an imitator of God. He can, if he is willing. For it is not by ruling over his neighbors, or by seeking to hold the supremacy over those that are weaker, or by being rich, and showing violence towards those that are inferior, that happiness is found; nor can any one by these things become an imitator of God. But these things do not at all constitute His majesty.

On the contrary he who takes upon himself the burden of his neighbor; he who, in whatsoever respect he may be superior, is ready to benefit another who is deficient; he who, whatsoever things he has received from God, by distributing these to the needy, becomes a god to those who receive it: he is an imitator of God. Then you shall see, while still on earth, that God in the heavens rules over all; then you shall begin to speak the mysteries of God; then shall you both love and admire those that suffer punishment because they will not deny God; then shall you condemn the deceit and error of the world when you shall know what it is to live truly in heaven, when you shall despise that which is here esteemed to be death, when you shall fear what is truly death, which is reserved for those who shall be condemned to the eternal fire, which shall afflict those even to the end that are committed to it. Then shall you admire those who for righteousness’ sake endure the fire that is but for a moment, and shall count them happy when you understand the nature of that fire.

Justin Martyr

First Apology 13, 14, 67
Written about AD 155–160 from Rome to Emperor Antoninus Pius.

13 – Confession of Faith

We worship the Creator of this universe, declaring that He has no need of sacrifices and libations. We have learned that He desires those who imitate the excellences which reside in Him—temperance, justice, philanthropy, and all other virtues.

We reasonably worship Jesus Christ, having learned that He is the Son of the true God Himself, and holding Him in the second place, and the prophetic Spirit in the third.
We proclaim Him who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, who died, rose again, ascended into heaven, and will come again to judge the world.
He is the Logos who existed before all things and through whom the Father created and orders the universe.

14 – The Moral Transformation of Christians

We who once delighted in fornication now embrace chastity alone.
We who once used magical arts now dedicate ourselves to the good and unbegotten God.
We who once loved the acquisition of wealth and possessions above all things now bring what we have into a common stock and share with everyone in need.
We who hated and destroyed one another, and would not live with men of another tribe because of different customs, now, since the coming of Christ, live together and pray for our enemies, striving to persuade those who hate us unjustly to live according to the good precepts of Christ, so that they too may share in the same joyful hope of reward from God, the ruler of all.

67 – The Gathering of the Church on Sunday

And on the day called Sunday all who live in cities or in the countryside gather together in one place.
The memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read as long as time permits.
When the reader has finished, the president gives an address, urging the imitation of these good things.

Then we all rise together and offer prayers. When our prayers are finished, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president likewise offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people respond, “Amen.”
There is then distributed to each a portion of the consecrated elements, and those who are absent have it carried to them by the deacons.

Those who are well-to-do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; what is collected is deposited with the president, who aids orphans and widows, those who through sickness or any other cause are in need, those who are in bonds, and strangers who sojourn among us. In a word, he is the protector of all who are in need.

Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly because it is the first day on which God, transforming darkness and matter, made the world, and because Jesus Christ our Saviour rose from the dead on the same day.

Athenagoras of Athens

A Plea for the Christians 4–5, 10, 31
Written about AD 176–180 to Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.

4 – One God, the Creator and Sustainer of All

We are not atheists, for we acknowledge one God, uncreated, eternal, invisible, impassible, incomprehensible, who comprehends all things and is Himself comprehended by none. He is without beginning and without end, eternal and unchangeable, being the source of all existence and Himself the cause and maker of the universe. We know that He is not contained in space but contains all things; that He is not subject to time but is the author of time; that He is not made but is the maker. We recognize His power and majesty by the order and harmony of the things He has made and by the governance of the universe.

5 – The Son of God and the Holy Spirit

We also acknowledge a Son of God. Let no one think it strange that God should have a Son. The Son is the Word of the Father, in idea and in energy; for by Him and through Him all things were made, the Father and the Son being one. The Son is in the Father and the Father in the Son, in unity and power of the Spirit. The Son is the Father’s mind and Word. If you give close attention to the emanation of the Word, you will perceive that He is the first offspring of the Father, not as created, for God being eternal mind Himself had within Himself His Word, being eternally rational, but as coming forth to give form and order to creation.

We say also that there is a Holy Spirit, who is an effluence of God, flowing from Him and returning to Him like a ray of the sun. Who, then, would not be astonished to hear men who speak of God the Father, and of God the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, who show both their power in unity and their distinction in order, accused of atheism? The Father is the source of all, the Son is the Word through whom all things were made, and the Holy Spirit is the power that brings them into order and sustains them.

10 – The Life and Conduct of Christians

We are persuaded that there will be a life to come. Therefore we restrain ourselves from all wrongdoing, and we keep ourselves from evil deeds, words, and thoughts. We have learned to love even our enemies and to pray for those who persecute us, that all people may be counted worthy of the grace of God.

Among us you will find men and women and children of every age, who, though they may not be trained in letters, demonstrate by their actions the excellence of their lives. We do not commit murder or adultery; we do not practice sorcery; we do not worship idols of gold or silver or stone. We live chastely, we speak truthfully, and we serve one another in love, knowing that we shall give an account to God of both our thoughts and our words. We have renounced everything which is contrary to reason and have embraced everything which accords with reason. Our speech and our lives are ruled by the same law of truth.

31 – The Unity of Faith in the Triune God

Who among you, O emperors, would not be grieved if he were accused of atheism while he worships one God—the Father—and His Son, the Word, and the Holy Spirit, who are one in power: the Father in His being, the Son in His working, and the Spirit in His operation? We confess God and His Son and the Holy Spirit, showing both their unity of power and their distinction in order. We know that the life which follows this one is eternal, and therefore we seek to live purely and justly, so that we may obtain it from the God who is judge of all.

Irenaeus of Lyons

Against Heresies 1.10.1–2
Written about AD 180.

The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith:
One God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth and the sea and all things that are in them;
and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation;
and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God and the coming of the birth from a virgin and the passion and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father to gather all things in one, and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, every knee should bow of things in heaven and things in earth and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess to Him, and that He should execute just judgment toward all; that He may send spiritual wickedness and the angels who transgressed and became apostates, together with the ungodly and unrighteous and wicked and profane among men, into everlasting fire; but may, in the exercise of His grace, confer immortality on the righteous and holy and those who have kept His commandments and have persevered in His love, some from the beginning and others from the time of their repentance, and may surround them with everlasting glory.

As I have already said, the Church, having received this preaching and this faith, although scattered throughout the whole world, yet, as if occupying but one house, carefully preserves it.
She also believes these points of doctrine just as if she had but one soul and one heart, and she proclaims them and teaches them and hands them down with perfect harmony, as if she possessed only one mouth.
For, although the languages of the world are different, yet the meaning of the tradition is one and the same.
For the churches which have been planted in Germany do not believe or hand down anything different, nor do those in Spain, nor those in Gaul, nor those in the East, nor those in Egypt, nor those in Libya, nor those which have been established in the middle regions of the world.
But as the sun, that creature of God, is one and the same throughout the whole world, so also the preaching of the truth shines everywhere and enlightens all who are willing to come to the knowledge of the truth.
Nor will any one of the rulers in the churches, however eloquent he may be, teach doctrines different from these (for no one is above the Master); nor, on the other hand, will one who is weak in speech diminish the tradition.
For the faith being one and the same, neither does one who can speak at length add to it, nor does one who can say little take away from it.

Irenaeus of Lyons

Letter to Victor of Rome on Easter
(Preserved in Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 5.24.13–17)

For the controversy is not only about the day, but also about the very manner of fasting.
For some think that they should fast one day, others two, others still more; some count their day as forty hours of day and night together.
And yet all these live in peace with one another, and their disagreement in the fast confirms the agreement in the faith.

The presbyters before Soter, who presided over the Church which you now rule—I mean Anicetus and Pius and Hyginus and Telesphorus and Xystus—did not observe it themselves; and yet they were at peace with those who came to them from the parishes in which it was observed.
For the difference in the observance of the fast had not originated in our time, but long before, in the days of our forefathers; and yet they lived in peace with one another, and the difference in practice confirmed their unity in faith.

Tertullian of Carthage

Prescription Against Heretics 13
Written about AD 200.

Now, with regard to this rule of faith—that we may from this point acknowledge what it is we defend—it is that by which we believe that there is only one God, and no other besides the Creator of the world, who produced all things out of nothing through His own Word, sent forth before all things; that this Word, called His Son, was seen of the patriarchs under various forms, was ever heard in the prophets, and at last was sent by the Father through the Spirit and Power of God the Father into the Virgin Mary, was made flesh in her womb, and, being born of her, went forth as Jesus Christ; thenceforth He preached the new law and the new promise of the kingdom of heaven, worked miracles; having been crucified, He rose again the third day; was received into heaven, and sat at the right hand of the Father.
He sent in His place the Power of the Holy Spirit to lead such as believe.
He will come again in glory to take the saints into the enjoyment of everlasting life and of the heavenly promises, and to condemn the wicked to everlasting fire, after the resurrection of both the good and the evil, together with the restoration of their flesh.
This rule, as it will be proved, was taught by Christ, and admits of no question among us, except as it be raised by those who teach heresy.

Tertullian of Carthage

On Baptism 17
Written about AD 198–200.

There is no difference in the substance of the faith, whether a person be washed in the sea or in a pool, in a river or in a fountain, in a lake or in a trough; nor is there any distinction between those whom John baptized in the Jordan and those whom Peter baptized in the Tiber.
The same God is everywhere, and the same completeness of faith is everywhere the same.
What matters is not the place but the faith; not the element but the name.
In all things the same faith is one.
In matters of discipline and ceremony there is liberty; in the substance of the faith there is unity.

Origen of Alexandria

On First Principles, Preface 3–5
Written about AD 230–240.

All who believe and are assured that grace and truth came by Jesus Christ, and who know Christ to be the truth, agree that there are certain doctrines which are clearly delivered in the teaching of the apostles.
This is that doctrine which preserves the unity of the Church throughout the whole world, as the whole body of believers maintains one and the same faith.
But since there are many who think they believe what the Church teaches and yet differ among themselves in matters not plainly delivered, it seems necessary to set forth what are the main points which are clearly handed down by the apostolic preaching.

First, that there is one God, who created and arranged all things, who, when nothing existed, made the universe to be; this God from whom are all things, and through whom are all things, and in whom are all things.

Secondly, that Jesus Christ Himself, who came into the world, was born of the Father before all creation, being God, and afterwards took flesh and became man, and, having assumed human nature, was both God and man at the same time; that He truly suffered and was crucified, and truly died, and truly rose again, and, having conversed with His disciples, was taken up into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father, and shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead.

Thirdly, that the Holy Spirit was associated in honor and dignity with the Father and the Son; that He inspired the saints, the prophets, and the apostles, and that through Him the gifts of the Spirit are distributed to each believer as God wills.

Next, that the soul, having a substance and life of its own, shall, after departing from this world, be rewarded according to what it deserves, being destined either to obtain an inheritance of eternal life and blessedness, if its deeds have been good, or to be delivered over to eternal fire and punishment, if its crimes have been great and unrepented.

We also hold that the world was created and is governed by divine providence, and that, at its consummation, there will be a resurrection of the dead, when the body, which is now sown in corruption, shall be raised in incorruption, and every soul shall receive, according to what it deserves, either the reward of good deeds or the punishment of evil deeds.

These are the principal points which are clearly taught in the apostolic preaching. It is necessary for everyone who wishes to belong to the Church to know and believe them.
But concerning other matters, which are subjects of inquiry, the holy Scriptures have not spoken clearly; and it is left to those who are skilled in the word of wisdom to exercise their understanding and by investigation to discover the meaning of Scripture.
In such matters, if anyone, after diligent search, thinks differently from another who is also seeking truth, the peace and unity of the Church are not thereby broken.
For the apostles left such questions open for the exercise of those who would come after, that they might show their diligence and their love of wisdom.

Cyprian of Carthage

Letter 72 to Stephen, Bishop of Rome. Written about AD 255 concerning whether Christians need to be rebaptized if they were first baptized by heretical leaders.

Cyprian and his fellow bishops to their brother Stephen, greetings in the Lord.

We have read your letter which you wrote to our colleague Pompeius, concerning those who come to us from heresy, that you do not think it necessary that they should be baptized, but that only by the laying on of hands they should receive the Holy Spirit.
We, however, as far as our humble capacity allows, have judged otherwise, holding fast to the truth of the gospel and the tradition of the apostles.

For when heretics are baptized outside the Church, they have no part in the baptism of the Church, since there is but one baptism, which is in the Catholic Church alone.
Therefore we think that those who come to us must be baptized, so that they may receive within the Church the remission of their sins.
This we have decided in several councils and will continue to maintain; and we leave to each bishop the liberty of his own judgment, knowing that we are all to be judged by our Lord Jesus Christ for our actions.

No one among us sets himself up as a bishop of bishops, or by tyrannical terror compels his colleagues to obedience.
For every bishop, according to the liberty of his own will and power, has his own right of judgment, and can no more be judged by another than he himself can judge another.
But let us all await the judgment of our Lord Jesus Christ, who alone has the power both to appoint us in the government of His Church and to judge our acts.

We therefore pray that you, dear brother, would not think ill of us for maintaining this opinion, which has been established among us by long-standing custom and by many councils of bishops.
We preserve unity with you and with all our brothers in faith and charity, even though in this matter our practice differs.
For diversity of custom does not destroy the bond of peace and concord in the Church.

Eusebius of Caesarea

Ecclesiastical History 6.44.2–3
Written about AD 310, describing the churches after the Decian persecution.

Each of the churches took its own course in the matter: some were more lenient toward the fallen, thinking that they should be received after a reasonable time of repentance; others treated them more strictly.
In this diversity of procedure, unity of faith was preserved throughout, and the Lord was glorified in all.

For the treatment of those who had fallen did not originate with the present bishops, but had been handed down from their predecessors long ago.
So that, even though they differed in judgment about the healing of those who had lapsed, they were all of one mind in the same faith toward our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ.

Eusebius of Caesarea

Ecclesiastical History 10.1–2, 10.4, 10.8
Written about AD 313–314, immediately after the end of the Diocletian persecution.

When the dreadful storm had ceased, then, as after a long and dark night, a bright day shone on the churches.
Their rulers in every place repaired what was destroyed, rebuilding the houses of prayer, enlarging them, and restoring unity by mutual peace.
Each shepherd of the churches acted as seemed best for his own flock, yet the faith was one, and thanksgiving rose from all together to the one God through Jesus Christ.

Thus from city to city and from region to region men assembled with one accord, and great multitudes thronged the restored churches, singing hymns of praise to the God of all, the Author of their deliverance.

There was a perfect fulfillment of the divine word: “Out of the darkness light has shone.”
And the Lord granted to His people peace and joy and the privilege of rebuilding the temples that had been destroyed, raising them larger and more magnificent than before.
They dedicated them to the Lord with one heart and one faith, though the forms of their services varied according to the customs of each place.

Lactantius

On the Deaths of the Persecutors 48–52
Written about AD 315 from Gaul.

When liberty was restored, every man began to worship God according to his own conscience, and the altars of the Lord were rebuilt in every place.
There was one religion again in the world, but many kinds of service, all directed to the same God who had overthrown the impious.

Then the worshipers of false gods were confounded; for when they saw the churches rebuilt and the people gathering together, they knew that the religion they had sought to extinguish was living again and flourishing.
And so they fled, ashamed of their own folly.
Peace was restored, and concord among all who called upon the name of Christ.

At last the Church, which for so long a time had been cast down, arose and spread itself over the whole world.
The altars of the true God were restored, and sacrifices of praise were offered not by a few but by many nations.
The people of God rejoiced, and all differences of manner and custom were reconciled in the unity of the faith.
Thus the worship of the one true God was renewed in purity, and the world, long divided, was brought again into harmony under the name of Christ.

Constantine’s Letter to the Bishops at Arles

Recorded in Eusebius, Life of Constantine 2.64
Written about AD 314.

Since through the favor of Almighty God peace has been granted to the Church, it is fitting that all differences should be resolved, that faith may remain one, while customs may vary according to place and usage.
For the holy doctrine of the faith is everywhere the same, though its outward forms may differ according to time and circumstance.
Therefore let there be no envy or contention among the ministers of God, but let each hold to what he has received, so long as he confesses the one truth of the gospel.

Eusebius of Caesarea

Life of Constantine 2.28–30
Written about AD 325–337.

The emperor permitted each bishop to arrange the affairs of his own community, yet he himself labored unceasingly that all should hold one faith in God.
For he knew that unity of faith, even among diverse customs, brings peace to the whole world.

He sought to heal every division by persuasion rather than by compulsion, reasoning that the worship of God should be voluntary and not forced.
He rejoiced to see the churches filled and the people assembling for prayer; he honored those who differed in practice yet agreed in faith, knowing that the grace of God is not confined to one form of observance.

Marcus Aurelius and the Martyrs: Stoic Resignation vs. Christian Resurrection

September 5, 2025October 28, 2025 / Jason Conrad / Leave a comment

When Antoninus Pius died in AD 161, the throne passed to his adopted son Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. For the first eight years he ruled jointly with Lucius Verus; after Verus’ death in 169, Marcus reigned alone until 180.

Marcus is remembered as the philosopher-emperor. His Meditations, written in Greek during military campaigns, are one of the most famous works of Stoic philosophy. They counsel calm acceptance of death and resignation to the fleeting nature of life.

Yet in these same decades, Christians were being persecuted across the empire. They too left writings — apologies, theological treatises, and martyrdom accounts. These voices allow us to set Stoicism and Christianity side by side in the years of plague and persecution.

Marcus Aurelius on Life and Death

In the Meditations, written in the 170s during the wars on the Danube frontier, Marcus constantly reminded himself of life’s brevity:

“Of man’s life, his time is a point, his substance a flux, his sense dull, the fabric of his body corruptible, his soul spinning round, his fortune dark, his fame uncertain. Brief is all that is of the body, a river and a vapour; and life is a warfare and a sojourning in a strange land; and after-fame is oblivion.” (2.17, Loeb)

“Consider how swiftly all things vanish — the bodies themselves into the universe, and the memories of them into eternity. What is the nature of all objects of sense, and especially those which attract with pleasure or affright with pain or are blazed abroad by vanity — how cheap they are, how despicable, sordid, perishable, and dead.” (9.3, Loeb)

He urged himself not to despise death but to welcome it, since dissolution is as natural as birth or growth:

“Do not despise death, but welcome it, since nature wills it like all else. For dissolution is one of the processes of nature, just as youth and age, growth and maturity, teeth and beard and grey hairs and procreation and pregnancy and childbirth, and all the other natural operations which the seasons of life bring. To be not only not resisted but welcomed by the wise man is no less fitting.” (9.3, Loeb)

For Marcus, death was inevitable dissolution into the cosmos; memory itself was destined to fade into nothing. Stoicism offered dignity and calm acceptance, but no hope beyond the grave.

Justin Martyr: Death Cannot Harm Us

At the very same time in Rome, the Christian philosopher Justin Martyr was writing his apologies to the emperor. In his First Apology, written about 155–157, Justin described how Christians worshiped:

“And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits. Then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we said before, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a sharing with those who are absent, and to those who are not present a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succors the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need. But Sunday is the day on which we all hold our common assembly, because it is the first day on which God, having wrought a change in the darkness and matter, made the world; and Jesus Christ our Savior on the same day rose from the dead. For He was crucified on the day before that of Saturn (Saturday); and on the day after that of Saturn, which is the day of the Sun, having appeared to His apostles and disciples, He taught them these things, which we have submitted to you also for your consideration.” (First Apology 67, Loeb)

While Marcus mused on life’s futility, Christians were meeting every week to proclaim eternal life through Christ’s resurrection and to share the Eucharist as a pledge of incorruption, with their offerings supporting the poor, the sick, the imprisoned, and strangers.

In the same work, Justin explained why Christians did not fear persecution:

“We are accused of being atheists. But we are not atheists, since we worship the Creator of the universe… Him we reasonably worship, having learned that He is the Son of the true God Himself, and holding Him in the second place, and the prophetic Spirit in the third… For though beheaded, crucified, thrown to wild beasts, in chains and in fire, we do not renounce our confession; but the more such things happen, the more others in turn become believers.” (First Apology 13, Loeb)

In his Dialogue with Trypho, written in the 160s, Justin emphasized that the soul does not perish with the body:

“For not as common opinion holds, the soul dies with the body. We say that souls survive, and that those who have lived virtuously shall dwell in a better place, while those who have done wickedly shall suffer a worse fate, and that the unjust are punished with everlasting fire.” (Dialogue 5, Loeb)

And in his Second Apology, probably written after Marcus came to power, Justin summed it up in one line:

“You can kill us, but cannot hurt us.” (Second Apology 2, Loeb)

The Martyrdom of Justin

Justin’s philosophy became confession, and his confession became death. In about 165 he and six companions were brought before the prefect Junius Rusticus in Rome. The Acts of Justin’s Martyrdom, preserved in Greek, record the trial.

Rusticus commanded them to sacrifice:

“Approach and sacrifice, all of you, to the gods.”

Justin replied:

“No one in his right mind gives up piety for impiety.” (ch. 5–6, Loeb)

Rusticus pressed him:

“If you are scourged and beheaded, do you believe you will go up to heaven?”

Justin answered:

“I hope that if I endure these things I shall have His gifts. For I know that all who live piously in Christ shall have abiding grace even to the end of the whole world.” (ch. 6, Loeb)

The prefect pronounced sentence:

“Let those who have refused to sacrifice to the gods and to obey the command of the emperor be scourged and led away to suffer the penalty of capital punishment according to the laws.”

And so, the account concludes:

“The holy martyrs, glorifying God, went out to the customary place, and were beheaded, and completed their testimony in confessing the Savior.” (ch. 8, Loeb)

Justin was condemned not for crimes but for refusing to renounce the name of Christ. And this was nothing new. The same policy had been in place since Nero, carried on by every emperor in one form or another.

Nero (54–68): After the fire of Rome in AD 64, Nero did something new in Roman history. Unlike any other group, he chose the entire class of people called Christians for punishment. Tacitus says they were convicted “not so much of the crime of firing the city as of hatred of the human race.” Anyone associated with the name was liable to arrest, and an “immense multitude” was executed. Their punishments were grotesque public spectacles: some torn apart by dogs while covered in animal skins, others crucified, others burned alive as torches in Nero’s gardens. This marked a turning point: from then on, Christians carried the deadly liability of the name itself.
Vespasian (69–79) and Titus (79–81): Christians in Judea perished in the Jewish War; across the empire, Jewish-practicing Christians bore the fiscus Judaicus, the humiliating tax imposed on all who “lived like Jews.”
Domitian (81–96): Remembered by Christians as a new Nero. Dio Cassius says he executed Flavius Clemens for “atheism.” Revelation, likely written in these years, calls Rome “Babylon” and portrays the beast as Nero reborn. For the church, Domitian was Nero come again.
Trajan (98–117): His rescript to Pliny set the empire-wide rule: Christians were not to be sought out, but if accused and refusing to sacrifice, they must be punished — “for the name itself.”
Hadrian (117–138): Required due process but left the liability of the name untouched.
Antoninus Pius (138–161): Reaffirmed the same: Christians could be prosecuted “merely as such.”
Marcus Aurelius (161–180): And under Marcus the pattern continued — Justin executed in Rome, Blandina and Pothinus tortured in Gaul, Speratus and companions condemned in Africa.

From Nero to Marcus, the empire’s stance was consistent: Christians were punished not for ordinary crimes but for the name of Christ.

Athenagoras of Athens: Resurrection vs. Dissolution

Written around AD 177 and addressed to Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, Athenagoras’ Plea for the Christians (also known as the Embassy for the Christians) is one of the most eloquent defenses of early Christian faith. A philosopher by training, Athenagoras used the very language of Greek reason to defend the Christians against the charges of atheism, immorality, and political disloyalty. He explains the Christian understanding of God, the Trinity, resurrection, and the endurance of persecution with remarkable clarity.

From Plea for the Christians (Loeb)

“Who, then, would not be astonished to hear men who speak of God the Father, and of God the Son, and of the Holy Spirit, and who declare both their power in union and their distinction in order, called atheists? For we are not atheists, since we acknowledge one God, uncreated, eternal, invisible, impassible, incomprehensible, illimitable, who is apprehended by mind and reason alone, who is surrounded by light and beauty, and spirit and power unspeakable.

We are persuaded that when we are removed from this present life we shall live another life better than the present one, heavenly, not earthly, where we shall abide near God and with God, free from all change or suffering in the soul, and not as flesh but as spirits; or, if we shall again take flesh, we shall have it no longer subject to corruption, but incorruptible.

For as we acknowledge a God, and a Son His Logos, and a Holy Spirit, united in power—the Father, the Son, and the Spirit, because the Son is the Mind, Reason, and Wisdom of the Father, and the Spirit is the effluence as light from fire—so we declare that there is a God, and that the universe came into being by His will.

And though we are beheaded, crucified, thrown to wild beasts, chains, fire, and all kinds of torture, we do not renounce our confession; but the more such things happen, the more others in turn become believers, who observe the extraordinary patience of those who suffer and reflect that it is impossible for them to be living in wickedness and pleasure. For when they see women and boys and young girls preserving the purity of their bodies for so long a time under tortures, and others who had been weak in body becoming strong through the name of Christ, they are moved to understand that there is something divine in this teaching.”
— Athenagoras, Plea for the Christians 10–12, 18 (Loeb Classical Library)

Key Insights

Contrast with Stoicism: While Marcus’ Stoicism accepted death as dissolution, Athenagoras presents death as transformation — a passage into the incorruptible life of God.

Addressed directly to Marcus Aurelius: Athenagoras wrote from Athens to the same emperor who condemned Justin, appealing for reason and justice.

First philosophical articulation of the Trinity: He names “God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit” and explains their unity and distinction.

Immortality and incorruption: Christians believe that after death, they live near God — not dissolving into the cosmos, but sharing in incorruptible life.

Persecution as proof of truth: Athenagoras insists that the courage, purity, and endurance of Christian martyrs demonstrate that their faith is divine.

Theophilus of Antioch: Immortality and Resurrection

Around AD 180, Theophilus, bishop of Antioch, wrote To Autolycus — a three-book defense of the Christian faith addressed to a learned pagan friend. His work is especially important for two reasons:

It contains the earliest known Christian use of the word “Trinity.”
It presents the Christian doctrine of creation, resurrection, and incorruptibility in contrast to Greek philosophy.

Writing from one of the great intellectual centers of the empire, Theophilus appeals both to reason and to Scripture, insisting that faith in the one God — revealed through His Word and Spirit — is the true path to eternal life.

From To Autolycus (Loeb)

“God, then, having His own Word internal within His own bowels, begat Him, emitting Him along with His own Wisdom before all things. He had this Word as a helper in the things that were created by Him, and by Him He made all things. He is called the beginning, because He rules and is Lord of all created things, fashioned by Him.

For God will raise up your flesh immortal with your soul; and then, having become immortal, you shall see the immortal, if you now believe in Him. Then you shall know that you have spoken unjustly against Him. For if you disbelieve, you shall be convinced hereafter, when you are tormented eternally with the wicked.

In like manner also the three days which were before the luminaries are types of the Trinity: of God, and His Word, and His Wisdom. But to us who bear the sign, God has given eternal life. For he who has believed and has been born again has been delivered from death and shall not see corruption.”
— Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus 2.10; 1.14; 2.15 (Loeb Classical Library)

Key Insights

Connection to Marcus’ world: Writing at the end of Marcus Aurelius’ reign, Theophilus gives voice to a Christianity fully confident in both reason and revelation — a faith that promises incorruptible life amid an empire obsessed with decay and death.

Earliest known use of “Trinity”: Theophilus is the first Christian writer to use the term explicitly — describing “God, His Word, and His Wisdom.”

Creation through the Word: Theophilus presents the Logos (Word) as God’s agent in creation, echoing both Genesis and John 1.

Promise of bodily resurrection: Unlike Stoicism, which saw the soul dissolve back into nature, Theophilus proclaims the raising of the flesh “immortal with the soul.”

Moral urgency of faith: Belief in God’s Word leads to immortality; unbelief results in corruption and loss.

Melito of Sardis: Christ’s Victory

During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Melito, bishop of Sardis in Asia Minor, wrote one of the most beautiful early Christian homilies ever preserved — the On Pascha (Peri Pascha). Preached during the annual Paschal celebration, it interprets Christ’s death and resurrection as the true fulfillment of the Jewish Passover.

Melito was deeply versed in both the Scriptures of Israel and the language of Greek rhetoric. His sermon combines poetic intensity with precise theology: Christ is both God and Man, the Creator who entered His own creation, suffered, and destroyed death. In the face of Roman Stoicism’s resignation to mortality, Melito proclaimed a faith that saw the cross as cosmic victory and the resurrection as the end of corruption.

From On Pascha (Loeb)

“He who hung the earth in place is hanged. He who fixed the heavens in place is fixed in place. He who made all things fast is made fast on a tree. The Master has been insulted; God has been murdered; the King of Israel has been destroyed by the right hand of Israel… He who raised the dead is himself put to death. He who has power over the dead is himself made subject to corruption. But he is lifted up on a tree, and nailed thereon, not for any evil he had done, but for the sins of the world.” (96)

“This is He who made the heaven and the earth, and in the beginning created man, who was proclaimed through the law and the prophets, who became human through a virgin, who was hanged upon a tree, who was buried in the earth, who was raised from the dead, who ascended to the heights of heaven, who sits at the right hand of the Father, who has the power to save all things, through whom the Father acted from the beginning and forever.” (105)

“This is the Passover of our salvation. This is He who patiently endured many things in many people: This is He who was murdered in Abel, and bound as a sacrifice in Isaac, and exiled in Jacob, and sold in Joseph, and exposed in Moses, and slaughtered in the lamb, and hunted down in David, and dishonored in the prophets. This is He that was made human of a virgin, that was hanged upon a tree, that was buried in the earth, that was raised from the dead, that was taken up to the heights of heaven.” (69–71)
— Melito of Sardis, On Pascha 69–71, 96, 105 (Loeb Classical Library)

Key Insights

A Message to Rome: Preached while Marcus Aurelius ruled, Melito’s words directly contradict Stoic despair: God has entered history, conquered corruption, and opened immortality to humankind.

Christ as Creator and Redeemer: Melito proclaims that the very One who made heaven and earth is the One who was crucified — uniting creation and redemption in a single act.

The Cross as Victory: Where Stoicism saw death as natural dissolution, Melito sees it as the moment when death itself was destroyed.

The True Passover: Christ fulfills every Old-Testament figure — Abel, Isaac, Joseph, Moses, David — revealing the unity of Scripture in Him.

Poetry and Power: The sermon’s rhythm and parallelism show how early Christian preaching rivaled classical oratory yet centered on the suffering God.

The Martyrs of Lyons and Vienne (177)

In AD 177, while Marcus Aurelius was still emperor, a violent persecution erupted in the Gallic cities of Lugdunum (modern Lyons) and Vienne. The empire was ravaged by plague, and popular suspicion fell on the Christians, whom many blamed for angering the gods. The hostility grew into mob violence, imprisonment, and finally public executions in the amphitheater.

The account was written by the local churches and sent to their brothers in Asia and Phrygia; Eusebius later preserved it in his Church History (Book 5, chapters 1–3). It is one of the earliest detailed descriptions of martyrdom in the western provinces of the Roman Empire and vividly records the endurance of ordinary believers—men, women, the elderly, and slaves—who suffered joyfully for the name of Christ.

From Eusebius, Church History 5.1–3 (Loeb)

“From the very beginning they endured nobly the injuries heaped upon them by the populace, clamors, blows, dragging, despoiling, stonings, imprisonments, and all things which the enraged mob are wont to inflict upon their adversaries and enemies.

They were shut up in the darkest and most loathsome parts of the prison, stretching their feet into the stocks as far as the fifth hole, and left to suffer in this condition. Yet though suffering grievously, they were sustained by great joy through the love of Christ.

Through her [the slave girl Blandina] Christ showed that things which appear mean and obscure and despicable to men are with God of great glory. For while we all feared lest, through her bodily weakness, she should not be able to make a bold confession, she was filled with such power that the insensible and the weak by nature became mighty through the fellowship of Christ. She was hung upon a stake and offered as food to the wild beasts; but as none of them touched her, she was taken down and thrown again into prison, preserved for another contest.

Pothinus, the bishop of Lyons, being more than ninety years old and very infirm, was dragged before the judgment-seat, beaten unmercifully, and after a few days died in prison.

They were all finally sacrificed, and instead of one wreath of victory which the Lord has given, they received many; for they were victorious in contests of many kinds, and endured many trials, and made many glorious confessions.”
— Eusebius, Church History 5.1.5, 14, 17, 29, 55 (Loeb Classical Library)

Key Insights

Legacy: The courage of these Gallic believers inspired churches from Asia Minor to North Africa. It shows how far Christianity had spread—and how deeply its followers trusted in resurrection over resignation.

A Letter from the Churches: This account was written by eyewitnesses—ordinary believers, not historians—making it one of the most authentic voices from the 2nd-century church.

Suffering Across Social Lines: The martyrs included nobles, slaves, and clergy. Blandina, a young slave girl, became the central figure of courage; Pothinus, a bishop over ninety years old, died from his wounds in prison.

Joy in Suffering: The letter repeatedly says the prisoners were filled “with great joy through the love of Christ.” Their faith turned the instruments of torture into testimonies of hope.

Public Spectacle: Their deaths were staged in the amphitheater, just as Nero had done a century earlier in Rome—proof that the name itself still carried a death sentence.

Contrast with Marcus’ Philosophy: The emperor wrote that life is vapor and fame oblivion; his subjects in Lyons believed their suffering crowned them with eternal victory.

The Scillitan Martyrs (180)

In July of AD 180, only months after Marcus Aurelius’ death, twelve Christians from the small North African town of Scillium (near modern Tunis) were brought before the proconsul Saturninus at Carthage.

Their brief hearing—preserved in Latin as the Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs—is the earliest surviving Christian document in Latin, a legal transcript of their words before the Roman governor. The Christians were offered mercy if they would swear by the emperor’s genius and return to “Roman custom.” Instead, they calmly confessed their allegiance to Christ and accepted execution.

From the Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs (Loeb)

Saturninus the proconsul said: “You can win the indulgence of our lord the Emperor if you return to sound mind.”

Speratus, the spokesman for the group, replied: “We have never done wrong, we have not lent ourselves to wickedness, we have never spoken ill; but when we have received ill treatment, we have given thanks, for we pay heed to our Emperor.”

Saturninus said: “We too are religious, and our religion is simple: we swear by the genius of our lord the Emperor, and pray for his welfare, as you also ought to do.”

Speratus said: “If you will listen to me quietly, I will speak the mystery of simplicity.”

Saturninus said: “I will not listen to you when you speak evil of our sacred rites; but rather swear by the genius of our lord the Emperor.”

Speratus said: “I do not recognize the empire of this world; rather I serve that God whom no man has seen, nor can see with these eyes. I have not stolen; but whenever I buy anything I pay the tax, because I recognize my Lord, the King of kings and Ruler of all nations.”

The others with him said: “We too are Christians.”

Saturninus said: “Do you wish time to consider?”

They said: “In such a just cause there is no deliberation.”

Saturninus read from the tablet: “Speratus, Nartzalus, Cittinus, Donata, Secunda, and Vestia, having confessed that they live as Christians, and refusing, after opportunity given them, to return to Roman custom, are hereby condemned to be executed with the sword.”

And they all said: “Thanks be to God.”
— Acts of the Scillitan Martyrs (Loeb Classical Library)

Key Insights

A calm defiance of Stoic fatalism: Stoicism accepted death with indifference; the Scillitan believers accepted it with thanksgiving, certain that life eternal had already begun.

Earliest Latin Christian text: The Acts are the first known Christian writing in Latin, showing that the faith had already taken root far beyond its Greek-speaking heartlands.

Execution “for the name”: The martyrs are charged with no crime but refusal to renounce the Christian name or sacrifice to the emperor’s genius.

Civic loyalty without idolatry: Speratus insists that Christians are not rebels: they pay taxes and pray for the emperor—but cannot worship him.

Quiet confidence: Their composure is remarkable. They require no “time to consider” and meet the death sentence with “Thanks be to God.”

Empire-wide continuity: Their trial in North Africa mirrors Justin’s in Rome and the martyrs’ in Lyons—proof that by the late 2nd century, persecution for the Christian name extended from the capital to the provinces.

Stoicism and Christianity Contrasted

Marcus Aurelius (Stoicism, 170s): Life is fleeting vapor. Death is dissolution. All things vanish. After-fame is oblivion. The best that can be done is to endure with dignity and accept fate calmly.
Christians under Marcus (Justin, Athenagoras, Theophilus, Melito, the martyrs of Lyons and Vienne, and the Scillitan Martyrs, 155–180): Life is fleeting, but Christ has conquered death. The soul endures. The body will rise. Judgment is certain. Incorruption is promised. Suffering is not meaningless fate but victory with Christ. Death itself becomes thanksgiving and triumph.

This was not new in Marcus’ time. From Nero to Domitian to Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and now Marcus, Christians faced the same charge: death for the name.

Conclusion

The reign of Marcus Aurelius brought plague without and persecution within. The emperor’s Stoic meditations gave him dignity to accept dissolution. The Christians’ writings and martyrdoms gave them courage to proclaim resurrection.

From Nero to Marcus, the story was the same: Christians were executed not for ordinary crimes but for the name. The philosopher-emperor wrote that life is vapor; the martyrs declared that life is eternal in Christ.

Plague may ravage. Governors may condemn. Emperors may command. But the Christians of Marcus’ reign — and every reign since Nero — bore witness that Christ has overcome death, and in Him incorruption and eternal life have already begun.